Friday, April 17, 2015

James La Pierre Cutts

Blog 4.B

Enzymes can have a function change if there is a change in its structure. They act as catalysts to speed up reactions for a certain function. Based on whether a substrate will interact with the enzymes specific sites. Cofactors or coenzymes will bind with the enzyme and will result in a structural change to activate the enzyme. Competitive inhibition is a repressor and will stop the binding of the substrate and result in no activation of the enzyme on the activation site. Allosteric sites can inhibit or activate a enzyme depending on the molecule added and thus changes the shape of the enzyme such as a noncompetitive inhibitor
     Compartments to perform functions to contribute to the whole divide organisms. These different types of specialized systems create a metabolic pathway to create a product. At the cellular level the cytoplasm, plasma membrane and organelles work together to function for the cell. At the Multicellular level, Organs work together for the overall function of the organism for example the digestion of food. Both multicellular and unicellular organisms work together for mutually benefits to increase efficiency of energy and matter like the Bacteria community in rumen on cows.
     Interactions between the populations affect all the populations as a whole. How species react to another species affects the whole ecosystem for example predation mutualism and parasitism. All of these relations work using a feedback mechanism to play in a ecosystem.  But however one species can have a major effect on a ecosystem. Keystone species can cause a collapse of the whole ecosystem if they are removing or added to a environment.
       Humans have a impact on both the local level and global level. Humans for example use Logging, slash and burn agriculture. Humans also introduce new species that will affect the local species. However Geological and meteorological events can impact ecosystems. For example El NiƱo is a global event that happens on the coast of Peru and destroys algae which in turn effects organisms in the Pacific ocean.


Thursday, April 9, 2015

4.A.1
      Compare the synthesis and decomposition of biological macromolecules.
The structure and the function of  the polymers are derived from the way their monomers are assembled
      Where does the energy needed to drive the synthesis of biological macromolecules come from?
The energy that drives synthesis is from dehydration synthesis reaction
      How does the structure of <polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids> influence the function of those molecules?
The way that monomers are assembled in the polymers determine what function the molecules will do
      How does the structure of DNA contribute to it’s roles in protein synthesis and heritability?
The structure of DNA is divided into a five carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogen base.
      How do the differences in the structure of DNA and RNA contribute to the difference in the functions of those molecules?
Due to the difference in the sugar (Deoxyribose DNA or Ribose RNA) and the phosphate group (Thymine and Uracil) that allows DNA to be double helix and RNA to be single stranded.
      Explain how the sequence of amino acids in a protein determines each level of that protein’s structure.
The specific order of the monomers with interactions with the environment determine the shape of the protein
      Explain how the conditions of the environment that a protein is in affect the structure and function of that protein.
If a protein is under constant denaturing it will change its shape and lose its function
      Explain how the structure of lipids determines the polarity of the molecule.
Differences in saturation of lipids effect the structure of a lipid because if it is saturated it has maximum number of hydrogen atoms and no double bonds.

      Why is starch easily digested by animals, while cellulose isn’t?
The structure of starch allows organism to consume and breakdown starch into glucose but cellulose has a two dimensional structure that is more stable and harder to break down.
      Explain how directionality influences structure and function of the following polymer:
1.     Nucleic acids
DNA is  created in a 3 to 5 direction while RNA is created 5 to 3 with the structure of its nucleotides.

4.A.2
          Diagram the endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells.
          Describe ribosome structure and function.
Ribosomes have two interacting parts ribosomal RNA and protein. Ribosomes are where proteins are synthesized from translation
          Describe the two types endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in both structure and function.
The Rough endoplasmic reticulum functions are compartmentalize the cell, mechanical support, provides site specific protein. The smooth ER synthesizes produces lipids and toxins.
          Describe the Golgi complex structure and their function
      The Golgi complex is a membrane bound structure that consists of a series of flattened membrane sacs and serves to package and transport vesicles and produces lysosomes
          Describe mitochondria structure and function.
The mitrochondria acts to capture and use energy. It has a double membrane that allows compartmentalization within the mitochondria while the outer membrane is smooth
          Describe lysosome structure and function
      Lysosomes are membrane enclosed sacs that contain hydrottic enzymes that digest cell materials and program apoptosis
          Describe a vacuole structure and function
      Vacuole is a membrane bound sac that plays roles in intracellular digestion and releases cellular waste products.
          Compare the cellular organization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes have no nucleus while in eukaryotic cells have a large vacuole
          Compare the structural similarities and differences of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell walls, chromosomes and ribosomes.
Only plant cells actually contain a cell wall in eukaryotic cells and both eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic have chromosomes in the ribosomes.
          Explain the structure and function relationship in the chloroplast.
Chloroplast captures energy from photosynthesis. Chloroplasts have chlorophyll’s which allows the plant to reflect all lights and capture sunlight
          Explain what chlorophyll is and why they are important.
Chloroplasts have chlorophyll’s which allows the plant to reflect all lights and capture sunlight

          Explain the structure and function relationships between chloroplasts and mitochondria
Both are primary source for creating energy but mitochondria produce them.
          Relate structural and functional evidence in chloroplasts and mitochondria to the endosymbiotic theory of their origins.
Chloroplasts and mitochondria both have double membranes and shows that they both originate from each other

4.A.3
·       Discuss how interactions between external stimuli and gene expression result in specialization of cells, tissues and organs.
External stimuli act as cues for gene expression from transcription factors which allows to specialize cells by turning on certain genes.
4.A.4
·       Discuss how the following organs interact
o   Kidney and bladder
The kidneys and bladder function together in osmoregulation and excretion.
o   Stomach and small intestines
The stomach and small intestine coordinate together in digestion and absorption of food.
o   Lungs and blood
The lungs and blood interact in the respiratory and circulatory system where the exchange of gases between the cells of an organism with the environment.
o   Xylem, phloem and leaves
All of these function together in the production and transport of carbs and water throughout plants.
·       Discuss how the following organ systems interact
o   Circulatory and respiratory
The lungs and blood interact in the respiratory and circulatory system where the exchange of gases between the cells of an organism with the environment.
o   Vascular tissues and leaves
Plant vascular systems and leaves work together in the synthesis and transport of carbs.
o   Nervous and muscular
The nervous system and the muscular system coordinate to provide movement.

4.A.5
            Explain how species composition and diversity can be used to describe the structure of a community.
Richness is how many different species are in a community while species diversities is the number of species that are in a community
          Explain why mathematical/computer models are used to illustrate and investigate population growth patterns, population interactions, and environmental impacts on a community.  Describe the strengths and limitations of these analytical approaches.
They’re used because they supply accurate models of population interactions within communities and environmental impacts on communities. Some limitations are that they can only measure outwardly and not individually.

          Compare the exponential and logistic growth models for a population.
Experimental growth makes a J shape when it increases and shows a population that just keeps growing and growing. Logistic growth creats a S shaped curbe and shows that a population is near the carrying capacity of a environment
          Explain how demographic data can be used to analyze populations.
Demography can show the difference in ages in a population for example in the United States
          Describe the major demographic features of the human population locally and globally.
Humans display logistic growth because in the United States we have got effective health care and birth control however globally we have exponential growth because most countries have many children and as a result have a growth in population
4.A.6
          Describe how ecosystems provide organisms with their energetic and matter requirements.
Ecosystems allow energy to flow through and be recycled though first producers and then consumers and food webs and food chains.

          Explain how changes in climate can influence primary productivity in an ecosystem.
When C02 measures rise, temperature can increase and this affects Primary productivity because there is more carbon to be recycled and much gets trapped in the atmosphere.

          Compare food chains and food webs.
Food chains have trophic levels that start with Primary producers and work their way up to from Primary consumers to Quinary consumers. Food webs consist of several interrelated food chains and are drawn with arrows to signify the flow of energy.

          Describe the major interactions among organisms in a food web.
All are dependent upon primary productivity and are all interconnected (so one depends upon the other for survival).

          Explain how modeling of the trophic structure of an ecosystem can be used to make predictions about the effects of changes in biotic and abiotic factors on that ecosystem.  Describe the strengths and limitations of this approach.
Some strengths include the fact that the change in biotic and abiotic factors can be correctly graphed but sometimes flawed in design as other normal factors could affect the direction of the graph itself.

          Provide examples to demonstrate how human activities have impacted ecosystems on local, regional, and global scales.  Describe the causes, and effects of these impacts, and discuss possible avenues of mitigating these impacts.
On these scales, our increased population has lead to more and more needs for natural resource extraction and this is impacting our environments by reducing the diversity on this planet and sometimes the extinction of species. Some possible ways to curve this trend is to be more knowledgeable on the fact that these things impact all others and sources of energy in their environments.

          Provide examples of species that have been driven to extinction by human activities.
For example, due to human activities,  is the Pinta Island tortoise and was hunted to extinction by humans in the 19th century.



Friday, March 13, 2015

3.D blog

3. D. 1
1. Explain what factors are involved in cell communication.
·      Factors that are involved in cell communication involve a ligand, a molecule that binds to a receptor, the target detection of a cell, the transduction of the signal and the response it produces inside of the cell.
2. Explain why signal transduction process are generally under strong selective pressures.
·      Signal transduction is a process under selective pressures because in single cell organisms, it is a response to a cells environment, while a multicellular organism must communicate with the whole body to support the whole.
3. explain how signal transduction pathways influence how the cell responds to the environment using Quorum Sensing as an example.
·      Quorum Sensing is a example of a single cell responding to its environment. In Quorum Sensing bacteria send out a protein and that protein will communicate with other bacteria cells around them and will allow the nearby cells to respond in accordance to its population density.
4. Why is signal transduction important?
·      Signal transduction is important because it allows for the a organism to give a response from a external change and allow for a multicellular organisms to support itself as a whole with individual cells.
3.D.2
1. Explain cell to cell contact communication and give an example.
·      Cell to cell contact signaling is when cells communicate with direct contact with a cell. For example, plant cells use plasmodesmata to exchange materials with two cells that are in direct contact of each other.
2. Explain cell communication over short distances and give an example.
·      Cell communication over short distances or paracrine signaling is when cells communicate with regulators that are able to sense over local vicinity. For example, Quorum sensing is a local vicinity communication between bacteria
3. Explain cell communication when signals travel over a long distance and give an example.
·      Cell communication over long distances or endocrine signaling are signals sent out by one cell type to target cells of different type (Eukaryotic cells). For example, Insulin is released from the pancreas and is sent into your blood stream.
3.D.3
1. How does signaling begin in a signal transduction pathway?
·      Signal transduction begins with a chemical response called a ligand. A ligand can be a hormone, ion, neurotransmitter or steroids
2. Explain the ligand receptor relationship. What does it initiate?
·      The ligand receptor relationship is that since different receptors recognize different ligands, the ligand causes the protein to change its shape and initiates a internal signal.
3. Explain a G protein linked receptor.
·      In a G protein receptor, a ligand binds to a receptor and once the receptor has attached to a G protein (GDP) and once the binding has occurred between the ligand and the receptor, it causes the ligand to replace GDP with GTP. The G protein is then able to break from the receptor and the G protein can then bind to a area of the membrane called adenylene cyclase and releases a chemical response called cAMP. And cAMP can then phosphorylate protein kinase and amplify the signal
4. Explain a ligand gated ion channel
In a ligand gated Ion channel, the ligand binds to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The Sodium channel will then open when the acetylcholine binds to the receptor and this allows sodium to diffuse through the membrane. 
5. Explain receptor tyrosine kinases.
·      In Tyrosine Kinase, the growth fact binds to the receptor TK and combines to become a dimer. When the molecules cross, the RTK will take in dimer phosphorylates called cross phosphorylation. The RTK then activates multiple signal transduction pathways at once.
6. Signal transduction is the process by which a signal is converted to a cell response. Explain the entire process of signal transduction. Use the following terms (ligand, receptor, protein kinase, secondary messenger, phosphorylation, transduction,  cell response)
·      In signal transduction, a ligand binds to a receptor and causes a secondary message inside of the cell, this secondary message will activate a protein kinase and will phosphorylate a cell and begin a cellular response
3.D.4
1. Conditions where signal transduction is blocked or defective can alter cell response. Give an example of when this occurs. What happens?

·      A example of a alteration in signal transduction is cholera. Cholera is a toxin the will modify a G protein and will cause the G protein to not phosphoralise (GTP > GDP > GDP.)